martes, 18 de marzo de 2008
jueves, 21 de febrero de 2008
miércoles, 20 de febrero de 2008
THE BIRDS OF THE MANU BIOSPHERE RESERVE - THE GREATEST CONCENTRATION OF SPECIES ON EARTH
Peru's Manu Biosphere Reserve has the highest concentration of bird life on Earth. At the time of writing approximately, 925 species have been recorded. Ornitholigists expect this figure to break the 1000 mark in the near future as remoter areas of the reserve are explored. There are a little under 9000 species of birds in the world, meaning Manu holds one in every nine species found on the planet. No other protected area on Earth contains so many birds.
The Biosphere Reserve encompasses a great variety of altitudinal zones and habitat types. Altitudes vary from over 4000 meters above sea level in the high Andes down to 350 meters in the lowland Amazonian rain forest. For every 1000 meters gained or lost, the structure of the bird communities differs. This altitudinal variation, coupled with the variety of forest types, grasslands, lakes, and micro-habitats such as bamboo stands, reed-beds, and treefalls, has produced the highest bird count for any area in the world.
Manu is a birdwatchers paradise and many eco-tourists visit the reserve specifically to watch birds. On a two to three week birding trip to Manu, from the highlands to the lowlands, birdwatchers regularly record 450- 500 species, a staggering number.
The high grasslands at Ajcanacu pass hold high altitude Tinamous, Canasteros and Sierra-finches. This life zone is one of the least ornithologically explored areas of Manu. We expect several new species for the Manu Reserve to be added in this zone in the near future. At this altitude of nearly 4000 meters, a stunted forest, known as elfin forest, hosts several Tanagers, Flowerpiercers and a Thistletail found nowhere else in the reserve. Below the elfin forest and high grasslands, at approximately 3400 - 2500 meters is the humid temperate forest, characterised by tree-ferns and chusquea bamboo stands. Birds such as the Gray-breasted Mountain-toucan, Swallow-tailed Nightjar, Mountain Cacique, Barred Fruiteater and Collared Jay are typical.
Below 2500 meters, down to 1500 meters is the humid subtropical forest. This is the home of one of Manu's most well known and spectacular birds, the Andean Cock-of-the-Rock. A visit to a lek (traditional display site) is a must as up to 20 brightly colored males sing and display in an attempt to attract the seemingly indifferent females. Here are Quetzals, Toucanets, and a wide variety of Tanagers, Flycatchers and Wrens. A morning's birdwatching here can be a fantastic experience as large flocks containing several dozen species of birds move through the cloud forest, some sally-gleaning, some probing crevices, others climbing tree trunks or limbs. Below here and between 1500 and 900 meters is the humid upper tropical forest where some of the difficult-to-see birds of Manu exist.
The forest at this altitude is under much pressure in the rest of South America due to cutting for the growing of tea, coffee and coca. In Manu, it remains intact. Here mixed-species flocks may contain Orange-fronted Plushcrown, Versicolored Barbet, Chestnut-breasted Wren, Cerulean-capped Manakin, Peruvian Piedtail and scores of Flycatchers, Woodcreepers, Tanagers and Flowerpiecers.
Leaving the Andes behind with it's rushing streams and montane forest, the visitor to Manu suddenly finds flat humid tropical forest, the Amazon Basin proper. Here, the Manu River is characterised by a meandering, slow flowing watercourse with white sand beaches exposed during the dry season from June to October. These beaches provide valuable nesting habitat and are loaded with nesting and visiting birds. Unlike many other river systems in the Amazon, birds breed here unmolested. Hundreds of Black Skimmers, Large-billed and Yellow-billed Terns, Orinoco Geese, Pied Lapwings, Collared Plovers and Sand-colored Nightjars nest along the Manu.These beaches are also used by Jabiru and American Wood-storks, Roseate Spoonbills, a variety of Egrets and Herons and in late July and August, many migrating shorebirds from North America on their way to points further south.
The slow flowing river forms high banks on outside river bends where, hundreds of Macaws, Parrots and their smaller relatives, congregate to eat clay essential to digestion. The spectacle of hundreds of Macaws, the worlds largest members of the Parrot family, screaming , wheeling overhead and settling on the clay lick is surely one of the worlds great wildlife shows, worth a trip to Manu on it's own!
Macaws are still common and seven species occur in the forests of Manu, unlike many other areas where Macaw populations have been severly depleated due to deforestation, hunting and collection for the pet trade. The meandering Manu has created many ox-bow lakes in various stages of development, from recently formed to very old, overgrown lakes with almost no water. This is a microhabitat characterised by birds such as Sungrebe, Sunbittern, Wattled Jacana, Muscovy Duck, Rufous-sided Crake, Pale-eyed Blackbird, Anhinga, Agami and Boat-billed Herons, Silvered Antbirds, Streaked Antwrens, Red-capped Cardinals and the strange prehistoric looking Hoatzin.
The forests of the Manu drainage vary from varzea forest and transitional floodplain forest to tierra firme forest. These pristine lowland forests hold over 500 species alone and present some of the most tricky but exciting birdwatching in the world. A good ear is essential as many species are only located when the song or call note is recognised.
Many birds live only in the canopy of the forest and are difficult to see, others only in the middle and understory and others yet are terrestrial. Some specialise in creeping up trees and probing for insects, others sally out to catch flying insects or turn over leaf litter in search of anthropods or fallen seeds and fruits. Forest-falcons and other winged predators lurk in vine tangles ready to snatch a small bird out of a mixed species flock! Large bamboo stands occur as microhabitats within these forest types and hold some of the rarest and most sought after birds such as the Rufous-headed Woodpecker, Manu Antbird, White-cheeked Tody-flycatcher, Peruvian Recurvebill, and Long-crested pygmy-tyrant.
Recently formed islands hold willow loving species such as the Orange-headed Tanager and River Tyrannulet. Here in the forests of Manu, many species of birds flock together as a defence against predators - more eyes to keep watch. These mixed-feeding flocks are divided into two main types, canopy flocks and mid-story flocks. When the two types of flock join together as they often do for short periods, up to 70 species of bird may be present at one time!
In short, the Manu Biosphere Reserve is home to some of the most important and varied birdlife found anywhere and indeed certain species, such as Black-faced Cotinga and Rufous-fronted Antthrush can be seen with certainty only here. Truly a paradise for the birdwatcher and for the birds a very important protected area indeed!
The Biosphere Reserve encompasses a great variety of altitudinal zones and habitat types. Altitudes vary from over 4000 meters above sea level in the high Andes down to 350 meters in the lowland Amazonian rain forest. For every 1000 meters gained or lost, the structure of the bird communities differs. This altitudinal variation, coupled with the variety of forest types, grasslands, lakes, and micro-habitats such as bamboo stands, reed-beds, and treefalls, has produced the highest bird count for any area in the world.
Manu is a birdwatchers paradise and many eco-tourists visit the reserve specifically to watch birds. On a two to three week birding trip to Manu, from the highlands to the lowlands, birdwatchers regularly record 450- 500 species, a staggering number.
The high grasslands at Ajcanacu pass hold high altitude Tinamous, Canasteros and Sierra-finches. This life zone is one of the least ornithologically explored areas of Manu. We expect several new species for the Manu Reserve to be added in this zone in the near future. At this altitude of nearly 4000 meters, a stunted forest, known as elfin forest, hosts several Tanagers, Flowerpiercers and a Thistletail found nowhere else in the reserve. Below the elfin forest and high grasslands, at approximately 3400 - 2500 meters is the humid temperate forest, characterised by tree-ferns and chusquea bamboo stands. Birds such as the Gray-breasted Mountain-toucan, Swallow-tailed Nightjar, Mountain Cacique, Barred Fruiteater and Collared Jay are typical.
Below 2500 meters, down to 1500 meters is the humid subtropical forest. This is the home of one of Manu's most well known and spectacular birds, the Andean Cock-of-the-Rock. A visit to a lek (traditional display site) is a must as up to 20 brightly colored males sing and display in an attempt to attract the seemingly indifferent females. Here are Quetzals, Toucanets, and a wide variety of Tanagers, Flycatchers and Wrens. A morning's birdwatching here can be a fantastic experience as large flocks containing several dozen species of birds move through the cloud forest, some sally-gleaning, some probing crevices, others climbing tree trunks or limbs. Below here and between 1500 and 900 meters is the humid upper tropical forest where some of the difficult-to-see birds of Manu exist.
The forest at this altitude is under much pressure in the rest of South America due to cutting for the growing of tea, coffee and coca. In Manu, it remains intact. Here mixed-species flocks may contain Orange-fronted Plushcrown, Versicolored Barbet, Chestnut-breasted Wren, Cerulean-capped Manakin, Peruvian Piedtail and scores of Flycatchers, Woodcreepers, Tanagers and Flowerpiecers.
Leaving the Andes behind with it's rushing streams and montane forest, the visitor to Manu suddenly finds flat humid tropical forest, the Amazon Basin proper. Here, the Manu River is characterised by a meandering, slow flowing watercourse with white sand beaches exposed during the dry season from June to October. These beaches provide valuable nesting habitat and are loaded with nesting and visiting birds. Unlike many other river systems in the Amazon, birds breed here unmolested. Hundreds of Black Skimmers, Large-billed and Yellow-billed Terns, Orinoco Geese, Pied Lapwings, Collared Plovers and Sand-colored Nightjars nest along the Manu.These beaches are also used by Jabiru and American Wood-storks, Roseate Spoonbills, a variety of Egrets and Herons and in late July and August, many migrating shorebirds from North America on their way to points further south.
The slow flowing river forms high banks on outside river bends where, hundreds of Macaws, Parrots and their smaller relatives, congregate to eat clay essential to digestion. The spectacle of hundreds of Macaws, the worlds largest members of the Parrot family, screaming , wheeling overhead and settling on the clay lick is surely one of the worlds great wildlife shows, worth a trip to Manu on it's own!
Macaws are still common and seven species occur in the forests of Manu, unlike many other areas where Macaw populations have been severly depleated due to deforestation, hunting and collection for the pet trade. The meandering Manu has created many ox-bow lakes in various stages of development, from recently formed to very old, overgrown lakes with almost no water. This is a microhabitat characterised by birds such as Sungrebe, Sunbittern, Wattled Jacana, Muscovy Duck, Rufous-sided Crake, Pale-eyed Blackbird, Anhinga, Agami and Boat-billed Herons, Silvered Antbirds, Streaked Antwrens, Red-capped Cardinals and the strange prehistoric looking Hoatzin.
The forests of the Manu drainage vary from varzea forest and transitional floodplain forest to tierra firme forest. These pristine lowland forests hold over 500 species alone and present some of the most tricky but exciting birdwatching in the world. A good ear is essential as many species are only located when the song or call note is recognised.
Many birds live only in the canopy of the forest and are difficult to see, others only in the middle and understory and others yet are terrestrial. Some specialise in creeping up trees and probing for insects, others sally out to catch flying insects or turn over leaf litter in search of anthropods or fallen seeds and fruits. Forest-falcons and other winged predators lurk in vine tangles ready to snatch a small bird out of a mixed species flock! Large bamboo stands occur as microhabitats within these forest types and hold some of the rarest and most sought after birds such as the Rufous-headed Woodpecker, Manu Antbird, White-cheeked Tody-flycatcher, Peruvian Recurvebill, and Long-crested pygmy-tyrant.
Recently formed islands hold willow loving species such as the Orange-headed Tanager and River Tyrannulet. Here in the forests of Manu, many species of birds flock together as a defence against predators - more eyes to keep watch. These mixed-feeding flocks are divided into two main types, canopy flocks and mid-story flocks. When the two types of flock join together as they often do for short periods, up to 70 species of bird may be present at one time!
In short, the Manu Biosphere Reserve is home to some of the most important and varied birdlife found anywhere and indeed certain species, such as Black-faced Cotinga and Rufous-fronted Antthrush can be seen with certainty only here. Truly a paradise for the birdwatcher and for the birds a very important protected area indeed!
You can go to the Manu Reserve with us, just find out at http://www.amarakaeriecolodge.com/
NAZCA LINES : A MISTERY
The Nazca Lines are a series of geoglyphs located in the Nazca Desert, a high arid plateau that stretches 53 miles or more than 80 kilometers between the towns of Nazca and Palpa on the Pampas de Jumana in Peru. They were created by the Nazca culture between 200 BCE and CE 700. There are hundreds of individual figures, ranging in complexity from simple lines to stylized hummingbirds, spiders, monkeys, fishes, sharks, llamas and lizards.
The Nazca lines cannot be recognized as coherent figures except from the air. Since it is presumed the Nazca people could never have seen their work from this vantage point, there has been much speculation on the builders' abilities and motivations.
Construction
Since their discovery, various theories have been proposed regarding the methods and motivations underlying the lines' construction. The archaeological explanation as to who made them and how is widely disputed but many believe the Nazca people made the lines using simple tools and surveying equipment. Wooden stakes in the ground at the end of some lines (which were used to carbon-date the figures) and ceramics found on the surface support this theory. Furthermore, researchers such as Joe Nickell of the University of Kentucky, have reproduced, without aerial supervision, the figures using the technology available to the Nazca Indians of the time. With careful planning and simple technologies, a small team of individuals could recreate even the largest figures within a couple of days.
The lines were made by removing the iron oxide coated pebbles which cover the surface of the Nazca desert. When the gravel is removed, the lines contrast sharply with the surroundings because of the light-colored earth underneath. There are several hundred simple lines and geometric patterns on the Nazca plateau, as well as over seventy curvilinear animal, insect, and human figures. The area encompassing the lines is nearly 500 square kilometers (200 square miles), and the largest figures can be nearly 900 feet (270 meters) long. The lines persist due to the extremely dry, windless, and constant climate of the Nazca region. The Nazca desert is one of the driest on Earth and maintains a temperature around 25°C (77°F) year round, and the lack of wind has helped keep the lines uncovered to the present day.
The Nazca lines cannot be recognized as coherent figures except from the air. Since it is presumed the Nazca people could never have seen their work from this vantage point, there has been much speculation on the builders' abilities and motivations.
Construction
Since their discovery, various theories have been proposed regarding the methods and motivations underlying the lines' construction. The archaeological explanation as to who made them and how is widely disputed but many believe the Nazca people made the lines using simple tools and surveying equipment. Wooden stakes in the ground at the end of some lines (which were used to carbon-date the figures) and ceramics found on the surface support this theory. Furthermore, researchers such as Joe Nickell of the University of Kentucky, have reproduced, without aerial supervision, the figures using the technology available to the Nazca Indians of the time. With careful planning and simple technologies, a small team of individuals could recreate even the largest figures within a couple of days.
The lines were made by removing the iron oxide coated pebbles which cover the surface of the Nazca desert. When the gravel is removed, the lines contrast sharply with the surroundings because of the light-colored earth underneath. There are several hundred simple lines and geometric patterns on the Nazca plateau, as well as over seventy curvilinear animal, insect, and human figures. The area encompassing the lines is nearly 500 square kilometers (200 square miles), and the largest figures can be nearly 900 feet (270 meters) long. The lines persist due to the extremely dry, windless, and constant climate of the Nazca region. The Nazca desert is one of the driest on Earth and maintains a temperature around 25°C (77°F) year round, and the lack of wind has helped keep the lines uncovered to the present day.
Purpose
This section is missing citations or needs footnotes.Using inline citations helps guard against copyright violations and factual inaccuracies. (November 2007)
Coordinates: 14°43′S, 75°08′W)
There is scant evidence concerning why the figures were built, so the Nazca people's motivation remains the lines' most persistent mystery. Many scholars believe that their motivation was religious, making images that only gods in the sky could see clearly. Kosok and Reiche advanced one of the earliest reasons given for the Nazca Lines: that they were intended to point to the places on the distant horizon where the Sun and other celestial bodies rose or set. This hypothesis was evaluated by two different experts in archaeoastronomy, Gerald Hawkins and Anthony Aveni, and they both concluded that there was insufficient evidence to support an astronomical explanation.
In 1985, the archaeologist Johan Reinhard published archaeological, ethnographic, and historical data demonstrating that worship of mountains and other water sources played a dominant role in Nazca religion and economy from ancient to recent times. He presented the theory that the lines and figures can be explained as part of religious practices involving the worship of deities associated with the availability of water and thus the fertility of crops. The lines were interpreted as being primarily used as sacred paths leading to places where these deities could be worshiped and the figures as symbolically representing animals and objects meant to invoke their aid. However, the precise meanings of many of the individual geoglyphs remain unsolved.
This glyph is one of the more complex Nazca figures.
Notwithstanding Gerald Hawkins' and Anthony Aveni's dismissal of an astronomical explanation of the Nazca Lines and geoglyphs, astronomer Robin Edgar has theorized that the Nazca Lines, particularly the biomorph geoglyphs that depict animals, human figures, birds and "flowers" are almost certainly an ancient response to the so-called "Eye of God" that is manifested in the sky during a total solar eclipse. An unusual series of total solar eclipses over southern Peru coincided with the time period during which the Nazca Lines and geoglyphs were created. The totally eclipsed sun distinctly resembles the pupil and iris of a gigantic eye looking down from the sky thus providing an explanation as to why the Nazca Indians created gigantic geoglyph artworks that are best viewed by an "Eye in the Sky".
Some (for example Jim Woodmann) have proposed that the Nazca lines presuppose some form of manned flight (in order to see them) and that a hot air balloon was the only possible available technology. Woodmann actually made a hot air balloon from materials and using techniques that would have been available to people at the time in order to test this hypothesis. The balloon flew (after a fashion) demonstrating that this hypothesis was possible, but there is no hard evidence either way.
Another theory contends that the lines are the remains of "walking temples," where a large group of worshipers walked along a preset pattern dedicated to a particular holy entity, similar to the practice of labyrinth walking. Residents of the local villages say the ancient Indians conducted rituals on these giant drawings to thank the gods and to ensure that water would continue to flow from the Andes. This view correlates with the purposes of other North American geoglyphs.
Perhaps the most controversial theory was put forward by Erich von Däniken in his book Chariots of the Gods, who proposed that the lines were in fact landing strips for alien spacecraft. His argument is similar to Woodmann's, claiming that the designs are so large and complex that they could only have been constructed using flying machines.
Record setting hot air balloon aviator Julian Nott has also proposed that Nazca tribal leaders could have been aloft in primitive hot air balloons, as long as two millennia ago, guiding the creation of the Nazca ground figures from above.
Environmental concerns
According to Viktoria Nikitzki of the Maria Reiche Centre, an organization dedicated to protecting the Nazca Lines, pollution and erosion caused by deforestation threaten the continued existence of the Nazca lines. She is quoted as saying "The Lines themselves are superficial, they are only 10 to 30cm deep and could be washed away... Nazca has only ever received a small amount of rain. But now there are great changes to the weather all over the world. The Lines cannot resist heavy rain without being damaged." However, Mario Olaechea Aquije, the archaeological resident from Peru's National Institute of Culture in Nazca, Peru, and a team of specialists surveyed the area after the flooding and mudslides occurring in the area in mid-February of 2007. He announces that "the mudslides and heavy rains did not appear to have caused any significant damage to the Nazca Lines," but that the nearby Southern Pan-American Highway did suffer damage, and "the damage done to the roads should serve as a reminder to just how fragile these figures are."
In fiction
Accurate descriptions and purpose of the lines are described in the novel Domain by Steve Alten.
The Nazca Lines featured in the Anthony Horowitz novel Evil Star where they were an ancient gate which kept back a group of evil demons called the Old Ones. When the stars in the sky line up with the lines, the gate would open. The figures were to serve as a warning. At the end of the novel the Lines came to life and became real creatures.
The Nazca Lines were also featured in a Nancy Drew novel, with the spiral tailed monkey being the focal point of the mystery The Clue in the Crossword Cypher.
The Nazca Lines featured prominently in an episode of The Mysterious Cities of Gold entitled "The Nazca Plateau", where the supposition that the lines were designed to be viewed from above is underlined, with the main characters viewing the ground markings from the sky in their Golden Condor. There is also the implied suggestion the lines were part of an intentionally designed aerial runway as the flying bird lands at sunset along two parallel lines from the surface drawing.
The Nazca Lines were used as a major plot point in the video game Shining Force II and were even referred to by name. In the game, a Nazca bird is actually a flying ship created by an ancient advanced civilization. One of the game's boss fights was fought on top of the Nazca bird.
The Nazca Lines are featured prominently in an episode of the anime Master Mosquiton '99. In the episode, the main characters Inaho and Mosquiton must rescue a plane full of students. They can't land the plane as the airport runway has been flooded with sand that is covered with Nazca Lines (due to a curse from a Nazca mask). Upon inspecting the area, a Nazca spider comes to life and attacks them.
Figures resembling Nazca Lines appear in the arcade game Xevious.
The plot of the ninth episode of the anime series Cowboy Bebop is set in motion by the uncommanded recreation of the Nazca lines by a satellite-based defensive laser grid on the asteroid-pounded Earth.
The Nazca Lines also feature at the end of the game Assassin's Creed where 'eagle vision' is used to reveal markings in blood, including the Nazca monkey, hummingbird and spider.
The video game Illusion of Gaia contains an area named 'Nazca Plains', which contains references to the Nazca Lines.
In the role-playing game Rifts, the Nazca lines were used to create giant energy constructs, ranging from the actual walls of structures to defensive measures against an ancient alien invasion. After a cataclysm destroys human civilization and returns magic to the earth, the descendants of the Nazca civilization ally with the returning gods of the Inca to form a new nation, just as the aliens who attempted to invade before attack again.
This section is missing citations or needs footnotes.Using inline citations helps guard against copyright violations and factual inaccuracies. (November 2007)
Coordinates: 14°43′S, 75°08′W)
There is scant evidence concerning why the figures were built, so the Nazca people's motivation remains the lines' most persistent mystery. Many scholars believe that their motivation was religious, making images that only gods in the sky could see clearly. Kosok and Reiche advanced one of the earliest reasons given for the Nazca Lines: that they were intended to point to the places on the distant horizon where the Sun and other celestial bodies rose or set. This hypothesis was evaluated by two different experts in archaeoastronomy, Gerald Hawkins and Anthony Aveni, and they both concluded that there was insufficient evidence to support an astronomical explanation.
In 1985, the archaeologist Johan Reinhard published archaeological, ethnographic, and historical data demonstrating that worship of mountains and other water sources played a dominant role in Nazca religion and economy from ancient to recent times. He presented the theory that the lines and figures can be explained as part of religious practices involving the worship of deities associated with the availability of water and thus the fertility of crops. The lines were interpreted as being primarily used as sacred paths leading to places where these deities could be worshiped and the figures as symbolically representing animals and objects meant to invoke their aid. However, the precise meanings of many of the individual geoglyphs remain unsolved.
This glyph is one of the more complex Nazca figures.
Notwithstanding Gerald Hawkins' and Anthony Aveni's dismissal of an astronomical explanation of the Nazca Lines and geoglyphs, astronomer Robin Edgar has theorized that the Nazca Lines, particularly the biomorph geoglyphs that depict animals, human figures, birds and "flowers" are almost certainly an ancient response to the so-called "Eye of God" that is manifested in the sky during a total solar eclipse. An unusual series of total solar eclipses over southern Peru coincided with the time period during which the Nazca Lines and geoglyphs were created. The totally eclipsed sun distinctly resembles the pupil and iris of a gigantic eye looking down from the sky thus providing an explanation as to why the Nazca Indians created gigantic geoglyph artworks that are best viewed by an "Eye in the Sky".
Some (for example Jim Woodmann) have proposed that the Nazca lines presuppose some form of manned flight (in order to see them) and that a hot air balloon was the only possible available technology. Woodmann actually made a hot air balloon from materials and using techniques that would have been available to people at the time in order to test this hypothesis. The balloon flew (after a fashion) demonstrating that this hypothesis was possible, but there is no hard evidence either way.
Another theory contends that the lines are the remains of "walking temples," where a large group of worshipers walked along a preset pattern dedicated to a particular holy entity, similar to the practice of labyrinth walking. Residents of the local villages say the ancient Indians conducted rituals on these giant drawings to thank the gods and to ensure that water would continue to flow from the Andes. This view correlates with the purposes of other North American geoglyphs.
Perhaps the most controversial theory was put forward by Erich von Däniken in his book Chariots of the Gods, who proposed that the lines were in fact landing strips for alien spacecraft. His argument is similar to Woodmann's, claiming that the designs are so large and complex that they could only have been constructed using flying machines.
Record setting hot air balloon aviator Julian Nott has also proposed that Nazca tribal leaders could have been aloft in primitive hot air balloons, as long as two millennia ago, guiding the creation of the Nazca ground figures from above.
Environmental concerns
According to Viktoria Nikitzki of the Maria Reiche Centre, an organization dedicated to protecting the Nazca Lines, pollution and erosion caused by deforestation threaten the continued existence of the Nazca lines. She is quoted as saying "The Lines themselves are superficial, they are only 10 to 30cm deep and could be washed away... Nazca has only ever received a small amount of rain. But now there are great changes to the weather all over the world. The Lines cannot resist heavy rain without being damaged." However, Mario Olaechea Aquije, the archaeological resident from Peru's National Institute of Culture in Nazca, Peru, and a team of specialists surveyed the area after the flooding and mudslides occurring in the area in mid-February of 2007. He announces that "the mudslides and heavy rains did not appear to have caused any significant damage to the Nazca Lines," but that the nearby Southern Pan-American Highway did suffer damage, and "the damage done to the roads should serve as a reminder to just how fragile these figures are."
In fiction
Accurate descriptions and purpose of the lines are described in the novel Domain by Steve Alten.
The Nazca Lines featured in the Anthony Horowitz novel Evil Star where they were an ancient gate which kept back a group of evil demons called the Old Ones. When the stars in the sky line up with the lines, the gate would open. The figures were to serve as a warning. At the end of the novel the Lines came to life and became real creatures.
The Nazca Lines were also featured in a Nancy Drew novel, with the spiral tailed monkey being the focal point of the mystery The Clue in the Crossword Cypher.
The Nazca Lines featured prominently in an episode of The Mysterious Cities of Gold entitled "The Nazca Plateau", where the supposition that the lines were designed to be viewed from above is underlined, with the main characters viewing the ground markings from the sky in their Golden Condor. There is also the implied suggestion the lines were part of an intentionally designed aerial runway as the flying bird lands at sunset along two parallel lines from the surface drawing.
The Nazca Lines were used as a major plot point in the video game Shining Force II and were even referred to by name. In the game, a Nazca bird is actually a flying ship created by an ancient advanced civilization. One of the game's boss fights was fought on top of the Nazca bird.
The Nazca Lines are featured prominently in an episode of the anime Master Mosquiton '99. In the episode, the main characters Inaho and Mosquiton must rescue a plane full of students. They can't land the plane as the airport runway has been flooded with sand that is covered with Nazca Lines (due to a curse from a Nazca mask). Upon inspecting the area, a Nazca spider comes to life and attacks them.
Figures resembling Nazca Lines appear in the arcade game Xevious.
The plot of the ninth episode of the anime series Cowboy Bebop is set in motion by the uncommanded recreation of the Nazca lines by a satellite-based defensive laser grid on the asteroid-pounded Earth.
The Nazca Lines also feature at the end of the game Assassin's Creed where 'eagle vision' is used to reveal markings in blood, including the Nazca monkey, hummingbird and spider.
The video game Illusion of Gaia contains an area named 'Nazca Plains', which contains references to the Nazca Lines.
In the role-playing game Rifts, the Nazca lines were used to create giant energy constructs, ranging from the actual walls of structures to defensive measures against an ancient alien invasion. After a cataclysm destroys human civilization and returns magic to the earth, the descendants of the Nazca civilization ally with the returning gods of the Inca to form a new nation, just as the aliens who attempted to invade before attack again.
TITICACA LAKE : HISTORY AND ENVIRONMENT
Lake Titicaca is a lake located on the border of Bolivia and Peru. It sits 3,812 m (12,507 ft) above sea level making it the highest commercially navigable lake in the world. By volume of water it is also the largest lake in South America.
The lake is located at the northern end of the endorheic Altiplano basin high in the Andes on the border of Peru and Bolivia. The western part of the lake lies within the Puno Region of Peru, and the eastern side is located in the Bolivian La Paz Department.
The lake is composed of two nearly separate sub-basins that are connected by the Strait of Tiquina which is 800 m (2,620 ft) across at the narrowest point. The larger sub-basin, Lago Grande (also called Lago Chucuito) has a mean depth of 135 m (443 ft) and a maximum depth of 284 m (932 ft). The smaller sub-basin, Lago Huiñaimarca (also called Lago Pequeño) has a mean depth of 9 m (30 ft) and a maximum depth of 40 m (131 ft). The overall average depth of the lake is 107 m (351 ft).
Lake Titicaca is fed by rainfall and meltwater from glaciers on the sierras that abut the Altiplano. Five major river systems feed into Lake Titicaca—in order of their relative flow volumes these are: Ramis, Coata, Ilave, Huancané, and Suchez. More than 20 other smaller rivers empty into Titicaca, and the lake has 41 islands, some of which are densely populated.
Having only a single season of free circulation, the lake is monomictic and water passes through Lago Huiñaimarca and flows out the single outlet at the Rio Desaguadero, which then flows south through Bolivia to Lake Poopó. This only accounts for about 10% of the lake's water balance. Evapotranspiration, caused by strong winds and intense sunlight at altitude, balances the remaining 90% of the water input. It is nearly a closed lake.
Uros people harvesting some totora, an aquatic plant used to make their famous floating islands
Uros artificial islands, in Bolivia
Titicaca is notable for a population of people who live on the Uros, a group of about 41 artificial islands made of floating reeds. These islands have become a major tourist attraction for Peru, drawing excursions from the lakeside city of Puno. Their original purpose was defensive, and they could be moved if a threat arose. Many of the islands contain watchtowers largely constructed of reeds.
One of the islands from Lake Titicaca: Amantaní in the distance as seen from Taquile
Amantaní is another small island on Lake Titicaca populated by Quechua speakers. About 800 families live in six villages on the basically circular 15 square kilometres (6 sq mi) island. There are two mountain peaks, called Pachatata (Father Earth) and Pachamama (Mother Earth), and ancient ruins on the top of both peaks. The hillsides that rise up from the lake are terraced and planted with wheat, potatoes, and vegetables. Most of the small fields are worked by hand. Long stone fences divide the fields, and cattle, sheep, and alpacas graze on the hillsides.
There are no cars on the island, and no hotels. A few small stores sell basic goods, and there is a health clinic and school. Electricity was produced by a generator and provided limited to a couple of hours each day, but with the rising price of the petrolium, they no longer use the generator. Most families use candles or flash lights powered by batteries or hand-cranks.
Some of the families on Amantaní open their homes to tourists for overnight stays and provide cooked meals, arranged through tour guides. The families who do so are required to have a special room set aside for the tourists and must fit a code by the tour companies that help them. Guests typically take food staples (cooking oil, rice, sugar) as a gift or school supplies for the children on the island. They hold nightly traditional dance shows for the tourists where they offer to dress them up in their traditional clothes and participate.
The lake is located at the northern end of the endorheic Altiplano basin high in the Andes on the border of Peru and Bolivia. The western part of the lake lies within the Puno Region of Peru, and the eastern side is located in the Bolivian La Paz Department.
The lake is composed of two nearly separate sub-basins that are connected by the Strait of Tiquina which is 800 m (2,620 ft) across at the narrowest point. The larger sub-basin, Lago Grande (also called Lago Chucuito) has a mean depth of 135 m (443 ft) and a maximum depth of 284 m (932 ft). The smaller sub-basin, Lago Huiñaimarca (also called Lago Pequeño) has a mean depth of 9 m (30 ft) and a maximum depth of 40 m (131 ft). The overall average depth of the lake is 107 m (351 ft).
Lake Titicaca is fed by rainfall and meltwater from glaciers on the sierras that abut the Altiplano. Five major river systems feed into Lake Titicaca—in order of their relative flow volumes these are: Ramis, Coata, Ilave, Huancané, and Suchez. More than 20 other smaller rivers empty into Titicaca, and the lake has 41 islands, some of which are densely populated.
Having only a single season of free circulation, the lake is monomictic and water passes through Lago Huiñaimarca and flows out the single outlet at the Rio Desaguadero, which then flows south through Bolivia to Lake Poopó. This only accounts for about 10% of the lake's water balance. Evapotranspiration, caused by strong winds and intense sunlight at altitude, balances the remaining 90% of the water input. It is nearly a closed lake.
Uros people harvesting some totora, an aquatic plant used to make their famous floating islands
Uros artificial islands, in Bolivia
Titicaca is notable for a population of people who live on the Uros, a group of about 41 artificial islands made of floating reeds. These islands have become a major tourist attraction for Peru, drawing excursions from the lakeside city of Puno. Their original purpose was defensive, and they could be moved if a threat arose. Many of the islands contain watchtowers largely constructed of reeds.
One of the islands from Lake Titicaca: Amantaní in the distance as seen from Taquile
Amantaní is another small island on Lake Titicaca populated by Quechua speakers. About 800 families live in six villages on the basically circular 15 square kilometres (6 sq mi) island. There are two mountain peaks, called Pachatata (Father Earth) and Pachamama (Mother Earth), and ancient ruins on the top of both peaks. The hillsides that rise up from the lake are terraced and planted with wheat, potatoes, and vegetables. Most of the small fields are worked by hand. Long stone fences divide the fields, and cattle, sheep, and alpacas graze on the hillsides.
There are no cars on the island, and no hotels. A few small stores sell basic goods, and there is a health clinic and school. Electricity was produced by a generator and provided limited to a couple of hours each day, but with the rising price of the petrolium, they no longer use the generator. Most families use candles or flash lights powered by batteries or hand-cranks.
Some of the families on Amantaní open their homes to tourists for overnight stays and provide cooked meals, arranged through tour guides. The families who do so are required to have a special room set aside for the tourists and must fit a code by the tour companies that help them. Guests typically take food staples (cooking oil, rice, sugar) as a gift or school supplies for the children on the island. They hold nightly traditional dance shows for the tourists where they offer to dress them up in their traditional clothes and participate.
Situated on the Bolivian side of the lake with regular boat links to the Bolivian town of Copacabana, Isla del Sol ("Island of the sun")is one of the lake's largest islands.
Map of Lake Titicaca
The chronicler Bernabé Cobo documented two versions of an Inca origin myth that took place on the northern part of this island. The first Inca Manco Capac is said to have emerged from a prominent crag in a large sandstone outcrop known as Titikala (the Sacred Rock). Manco Capac is the son of Inti the Andean deity identified as the sun. In one version of the myth, the ancient people of the province were without light in the sky for many days and grew frightened of the darkness. Finally, the people saw the Sun emerge from the crag and believed it was the Sun's dwelling place. In another version related by Cobo, others believed the crag was dedicated to the Sun because it hid under the crag during a great Flood. Isla del Sol was the first land that appeared after the flood waters began to recede and the Sun emerged from Titikala to illuminate the sky once again. A temple was built at this rock and later expanded by the 10th Inca Tupac Inca Yupanqui. He built a covenant for mamaconas (chosen women) and a tambo (inn) for visiting pilgrims.
A view of Lake Titicaca taken from the town of Puno
Excavations at the archaeological site of Ch'uxuqullu, located on a small peak above the Bay of Challa, led to the recovery of Archaic Preceramic remains that radiocarbon dated to about 2200 cal BC. Eight obsidian flakes were recovered from this context, and Neutron Activation Analysis of three of the flakes revealed that all of them were from the Chivay obsidian source which is located in the Colca Canyon, Department of Arequipa. The presence of Chivay obsidian is clear evidence that inhabitants of the island were participating in a a wider network of exchange.
According to one bathymetric model, there is no path between the shore edge and the Island of the Sun that does not pass over areas where the lake bottom reaches a depth of 200 m (660 ft) or greater. Paleoclimate studies indicate that around 3100 BC the level of Lake Titicaca would have been as much as 85 m (279 ft) lower than modern conditions, but that it had reached near modern levels by about 2000 BC. Thus, at 2200 BC lake levels were probably lower than at present. Data from Ch'uxuqullu could suggest that lake shore cultures were using well-developed watercraft technology during the Archaic period.
Underwater archaeological investigations conducted off the Island of the Sun from 1989-92 led to the discovery of both Inca and Tiahuanaco artifacts. These are now on display at a site museum in Challapampa. Today the economy of the island is mainly driven by tourism revenues, but subsistence agriculture and fishing are widely practiced.
Suriqui lies in the Bolivian part of lake Titicaca (in the south-eastern part also known as lake Huiñamarca).
Suriqui is thought to be the last place where the art of reed boat construction survives, at least as late as in 1998. Craftsmen from Suriqui helped Thor Heyerdahl in the construction of several of his projects, such as the reed boats Ra II and Tigris, and a balloon gondola.
The origin of the name Titicaca is unknown. It has been translated as "Rock Puma", allegedly because of its resemblance to the shape of a puma hunting a rabbit, combining words from the local languages Quechua and Aymara, and as well as translated as "Crag of Lead." Locally, the lake goes by several names. Because the southeast quarter of the lake is separate from the main body (connected only by the Strait of Tiquina), the Bolivians call it Lago Huiñaymarca (Quechua: Wiñay Marka) and the larger part Lago Chucuito. In Peru, these smaller and larger parts are referred to as Lago Pequeño and Lago Grande, respectively.
The Bolivian Naval Force uses the lake to carry out naval exercises, maintaining an active navy despite being landlocked.
The partly-salt Lake Maracaibo in Venezuela is the only body of water in South America bigger than Titicaca, at about 13,000 square kilometres (5,000 sq mi), but some say it should be classified as a sea because it is connected to the ocean.
In August 2007 a small meteor impacted in mud at rather low speed. The impact crater is about 12 metres (39 ft) in diameter. Scientists have recovered several small pieces of the impact object, which is stony rather than metallic.
TREKKING AT THE HUASCARAN, 6,768 m.a.s.l. - 5 D / 4 N
THE HUASCARÁN (6768 masl) PERU HIGHEST MOUNTAIN.
“Climb the highest tropical mountain of the world!”
Route: Normal or Garganta
Technical difficulty: A.D Climbing passages are up to III, with sections of IV. Slings, wedges etc. may be needed for securing in rocks. Snow and ice slopes are 40°-45°, short passages also 50°. Tours at this level of difficulty are accessible to accompanied people in good physical shape with alpine experience.
Season:
June - September
Maximal temperature:
20°C
Minimal temperature:
- 20°C
Previous acclimation required
DAY 1: HUARAZ - MUSHO - BASE CAMP (3,100 MASL - 4,500 MASL)
Departing Huaraz early, your private transportation will take you north through The Callejón de Huaylas (Huaylas Valley) to Mancos Town. From here a further 11/2 hours on rough tracks takes you to your start point at Musho Village. Your mules will be waiting at Musho to transport the kit to Base Camp (4-5 hours) allowing you to enjoy the superb views of the Cordillera Negra (Black Range). Overnight and dinner at campsite.
LUNCH AND DINNER INCLUDED.
DAY 2: BASE CAMP - CAMP I (4,500 - 5,500 MASL)
After breakfast start of the ascent towards the camp I. It is beautiful walk on the big rock platforms of the Huascarán. Arrival to Camp I after 5 to 6 hours. Overnight and dinner at the first snow camp.
DAY 2: BASE CAMP - CAMP I (4,500 - 5,500 MASL)
After breakfast start of the ascent towards the camp I. It is beautiful walk on the big rock platforms of the Huascarán. Arrival to Camp I after 5 to 6 hours. Overnight and dinner at the first snow camp.
BREAKFAST, LUNCH AND DINNER INCLUDED.
DAY 3: CAMP I - CAMP II (5,500 - 6,100 MASL)
An early start leads up snow slopes to your first obstacle, an ice crack. There follows a glacial walk to Camp II (Garganta or Throat Camp).
DAY 3: CAMP I - CAMP II (5,500 - 6,100 MASL)
An early start leads up snow slopes to your first obstacle, an ice crack. There follows a glacial walk to Camp II (Garganta or Throat Camp).
BREAKFAST, LUNCH AND DINNER INCLUDED.
DAY 4: CAMP II - SUMMIT - CAMP I OR BASE CAMP
The final push to the summit begins at 01:00 or 02:00 hours. It can be cold start down -20°C, if there is a strong wind. Once at the summit (after 6 - 7 hours) you are rewarded with unparalleled views of the White Range, knowing that you have the descent to either Camp I or Base Camp will cap off the adventure of a life time. Overnight and dinner at campsite. BREAKFAST, LUNCH AND DINNER INCLUDED.
DAY 5: CAMP II OR BASE CAMP - MUSHO - HUARAZ
After breakfast, start the descent towards Musho Village where the transportation waits to take you back to Huaraz city. In arrival (4 - 6 PM), transfer to your lodging.
One more day might be needed in case of bad weather or to rest. In that case there is an additional price for extra day.
Tour includes:
Private transfer and transportation Huaraz - Musho - Huaraz
UIAGM mountaineering certified guide every 2 people
1 cook - porter (extra cook - porter for more than 6 people)
Mules and Muleteers for and from Base Camp
Full board (breakfast, lunch and dinner)
Group gear: 4 season tent, stove and tableware.
Security gear: rope, harness, binners, ice scrolls, stakes and helmet.
Entrance to the Huascarán National Park
First Aid Kit
Peruvian Tax
Do not include:
Personal clothes: Warm clothe, waterproof jacket and pants, down jacket, waterproof gloves, hat.
Personal gear: Backpack, headlamp, sunglasses, axe, crampons, harness, snow boots, leggings, sleeping bag, mattress. (Personal clothes and gear are obligatory).
Tables and chairs
Dinning and toilet tent
Transportation Lima - Huaraz - Lima
Lodging in Huaraz
Meals in Huaraz
Tips and extras
Oxygen tanks
Porter for personal gear
Hyperbaric chamber (ask for availability): US$ 20,00 per day (authorized only to UIAGM certified mountain guide)
It’s also possible to rent backpack, waterproof jacket and pants, headlamp, sunglasses, axe, harness, snow boots, leggings, sleeping bag, mattress, down jacket for an additional price.
Note: For Huascarán is not possible to take dinning and toilet tent, chairs and table for snow camps. It is just possible for the base camp. The most important thing is to reduce weight for the porters. After the base camp, it is impossible the used of mules, only porters available. It is recommended to take extra porters to carry the personal gear to the snow camps.
DAY 4: CAMP II - SUMMIT - CAMP I OR BASE CAMP
The final push to the summit begins at 01:00 or 02:00 hours. It can be cold start down -20°C, if there is a strong wind. Once at the summit (after 6 - 7 hours) you are rewarded with unparalleled views of the White Range, knowing that you have the descent to either Camp I or Base Camp will cap off the adventure of a life time. Overnight and dinner at campsite. BREAKFAST, LUNCH AND DINNER INCLUDED.
DAY 5: CAMP II OR BASE CAMP - MUSHO - HUARAZ
After breakfast, start the descent towards Musho Village where the transportation waits to take you back to Huaraz city. In arrival (4 - 6 PM), transfer to your lodging.
One more day might be needed in case of bad weather or to rest. In that case there is an additional price for extra day.
Tour includes:
Private transfer and transportation Huaraz - Musho - Huaraz
UIAGM mountaineering certified guide every 2 people
1 cook - porter (extra cook - porter for more than 6 people)
Mules and Muleteers for and from Base Camp
Full board (breakfast, lunch and dinner)
Group gear: 4 season tent, stove and tableware.
Security gear: rope, harness, binners, ice scrolls, stakes and helmet.
Entrance to the Huascarán National Park
First Aid Kit
Peruvian Tax
Do not include:
Personal clothes: Warm clothe, waterproof jacket and pants, down jacket, waterproof gloves, hat.
Personal gear: Backpack, headlamp, sunglasses, axe, crampons, harness, snow boots, leggings, sleeping bag, mattress. (Personal clothes and gear are obligatory).
Tables and chairs
Dinning and toilet tent
Transportation Lima - Huaraz - Lima
Lodging in Huaraz
Meals in Huaraz
Tips and extras
Oxygen tanks
Porter for personal gear
Hyperbaric chamber (ask for availability): US$ 20,00 per day (authorized only to UIAGM certified mountain guide)
It’s also possible to rent backpack, waterproof jacket and pants, headlamp, sunglasses, axe, harness, snow boots, leggings, sleeping bag, mattress, down jacket for an additional price.
Note: For Huascarán is not possible to take dinning and toilet tent, chairs and table for snow camps. It is just possible for the base camp. The most important thing is to reduce weight for the porters. After the base camp, it is impossible the used of mules, only porters available. It is recommended to take extra porters to carry the personal gear to the snow camps.
For more info about our tours and prices, please write us.
TREKKING AT PISCO PEAK, 5,752 m.a.s.l. - 4 D / 3 N
It is a good mountain for acclimation. From its summit there is one of the best views of the White Range: The Chacraraju (6112 m.), The Artensonraju (6025 m.), The Huandoy (6356 m.), The Chopicalqui (6354 m.) and The Huascarán (6768 m.). Optional ascent to Lake 69.
Route: Southwest ridge
Technical difficulty: P.D. = Climbing passages are typically rated II, and there may also be sections of III. Securing techniques required. Glaciers are cracked and snow slopes are typically up to 35°-40°, rarely steeper. Crampons and ice axe needed. Tours at this level of difficulty are usually still accessible to accompanied people in good physical shape without much alpine experience
Season:
June - September
Maximal temperature:
20°C
Minimal temperature:
- 10°C
Tour description:
DAY 1: HUARAZ - CEBOLLAPAMPA (3100 - 4000 masl)
Departing Huaraz early, your private transportation will take you north through The Callejón de Huaylas (Huaylas Valley) to Yungay Town. From here a further 1 1/2 hours on rough tracks takes you to your start point at Cebollapampa, where the camp will be based. This day for acclimation, it is possible to walk to the beautiful Lake 69. Overnight and dinner at campsite. LUNCH AND DINNER INCLUDED.
DAY 2: CEBOLLAPAMPA - BASE CAMP (4000 - 4665 masl)
Early the load is carried on mules and after breakfast it starts the ascent to the base camp (4 - 5 hours) allowing you to enjoy the landscape. Overnight and dinner at campsite.
BREAKFAST, LUNCH AND DINNER INCLUDED.
DAY 3: BASE CAMP - SUMMIT BASE - CAMP (4665 - 5752 masl)
At 1:00 am, after a fast breakfast, it starts the ascent to the glacier passing first trough the moraine camp. Walking in the glacier there are beautiful views of the perfect pyramid Artesonraju (6025 masl). After 6 to 8 hours you arrive to the summit where you have the unparalleled views of very steep peaks of the White Range such us Chacraraju (6112 masl) and Huandoys (6356 masl). Some minutes in the summit to rest and take pictures, and then return to the base Camp (4 - 6 hours), where a big dinner is waiting for you. The route is very simple; there is only one wall of 45°.
BREAKFAST, LUNCH AND DINNER INCLUDED.
DAY 4: BASE CAMP - CEBOLLAPAMPA - HUARAZ
After a succulent breakfast, start the descent towards Cebollapampa, where the transportation waits to take you back to Huaraz city. Arrival approximately at 4 or 5 PM to Huaraz and transfer to your hotel.
For more info about our tours and prices, please write us.
Route: Southwest ridge
Technical difficulty: P.D. = Climbing passages are typically rated II, and there may also be sections of III. Securing techniques required. Glaciers are cracked and snow slopes are typically up to 35°-40°, rarely steeper. Crampons and ice axe needed. Tours at this level of difficulty are usually still accessible to accompanied people in good physical shape without much alpine experience
Season:
June - September
Maximal temperature:
20°C
Minimal temperature:
- 10°C
Tour description:
DAY 1: HUARAZ - CEBOLLAPAMPA (3100 - 4000 masl)
Departing Huaraz early, your private transportation will take you north through The Callejón de Huaylas (Huaylas Valley) to Yungay Town. From here a further 1 1/2 hours on rough tracks takes you to your start point at Cebollapampa, where the camp will be based. This day for acclimation, it is possible to walk to the beautiful Lake 69. Overnight and dinner at campsite. LUNCH AND DINNER INCLUDED.
DAY 2: CEBOLLAPAMPA - BASE CAMP (4000 - 4665 masl)
Early the load is carried on mules and after breakfast it starts the ascent to the base camp (4 - 5 hours) allowing you to enjoy the landscape. Overnight and dinner at campsite.
BREAKFAST, LUNCH AND DINNER INCLUDED.
DAY 3: BASE CAMP - SUMMIT BASE - CAMP (4665 - 5752 masl)
At 1:00 am, after a fast breakfast, it starts the ascent to the glacier passing first trough the moraine camp. Walking in the glacier there are beautiful views of the perfect pyramid Artesonraju (6025 masl). After 6 to 8 hours you arrive to the summit where you have the unparalleled views of very steep peaks of the White Range such us Chacraraju (6112 masl) and Huandoys (6356 masl). Some minutes in the summit to rest and take pictures, and then return to the base Camp (4 - 6 hours), where a big dinner is waiting for you. The route is very simple; there is only one wall of 45°.
BREAKFAST, LUNCH AND DINNER INCLUDED.
DAY 4: BASE CAMP - CEBOLLAPAMPA - HUARAZ
After a succulent breakfast, start the descent towards Cebollapampa, where the transportation waits to take you back to Huaraz city. Arrival approximately at 4 or 5 PM to Huaraz and transfer to your hotel.
For more info about our tours and prices, please write us.
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